Ways of learning

Punishment is the consequence that follows a operant response that decreases (or attempts to decrease) the likelihood of the response occurring again.

A Cognitive map is used to refer to one’s internal representation of the experienced world.

Latent Learning is a form of learning that occurs without obvious reinforcement to be applied later. When a person learns something in life, but the knowledge is not immediately expressed. It remains dormant and may not be available to consciousness until certain circumstances allow or require it to be expressed. An example demonstrating this is child observes parent setting kitchen table, but he does not perform this himself until about a year or so.
Kristine

Reinforcement

Reinforcement is to strengthen. Strengthening the stimulus strengthens or increases the probability of a specific response.

Positive reinforcement is adding something in order to increase a response. Adding a praise adds a chance of a child cleaning his room.

Negative reinforcement is taking something away to increase a response. Taking away teen’s cell phone to prevent distraction while studying for a test will affect their grade positively.

Primary and Conditioned Reinforcers

Primary Reinforcers are a stimulus that does not require pairing to function as a reinforcer and most likely observed this function through the evolution and its role in survival. Some examples are sleep, food, air, and water.

Conditioned Reinforcers is a stimulus or situation that has acquired its function as a reinforcer after pairing with a stimulus that functions as a reinforcer. Some examples are praise, rewards, and treats.

Immediate and Delayed Reinforcers
You have a test tomorrow
It’s late and you are tired so you decide to sleep
You decide to study tomorrow morning by waking up an hour earlier.
The next morning you decide to sleep in rather than study.
Immediate reinforcer is you sleeping
Delayed reinforcer is doing well on the test.
Immediate reinforcer is superior to delayed reinforce because it forms a stronger relationship with stimulus and response. Example- sleeping because you FEEL tired.
Kristine

Stimulus

Discrimininative stimulus does not force or produce but it only suggests what to do or not to do. By some things presence or absence influences the probability of certain behavioral response.
For example , some jokes you tell your priest may be different than jokes you would tell your best friend because of your past history of telling jokes to both kinds of people.
Kristine

LEARNING

Learning is described as a "relatively permanent change in and organism's behavior due to experience." This means that through various experiences, animals or humans learn to show certain types of behaviors or suppress others, depending on whether the consequences are positive or negative. Some learning happens but is not demonstrated until there is an incentive for it, such as sitting in a language class but not speaking the language until you are in a country in which that language is spoken.

Some other types of learning are: Associative Learning and Observational Learning.

Associative Learning is the process of learning by associating two different events or stimuli. These stimuli could be a response and its consequence such as seeing a dark sky and preparing for rain.

Observational Learning is the process of learning by watching the actions of others. This method is especially used by children, who mimic things that their parents or other role models do. An example of OL is learning to tie your shoe by watching someone else do it.

(Charline)

PHASE TWO

All posts above this message are from Phase Two!
Thanks,
:)

Foreign languages

The memory is said to work better retaining information, such as a foreign language, taught before the age of 10. Children brought up speaking two languages will remember the language later in life longer than if taught later in life. The foreign language program should start at elementary school because not only will they retain the information better but also they will get more out of the language because they are spending more time on it.
Kristine Hernandez

Consider Wilson High School's social enviornment. How often does peer pressure play a role in the decisions that students make here?

Peer pressure plays an important role in schools. No matter how much we deny it everyone knows that at least once in school we have been tempted to do something by our peers. A perfectly well behaved student can be uninfluenced by the wrong crew. Most kids decide to fit in whether it is with their social group or in society. Therefore the feeling of embarrassment or awkwardness is not wanted. For example, a kid that is out late with friends who has a project due is influenced by his friends being told it is not important or that they are a “nerd”. Kids everywhere are influenced, at a younger age today. Girls in elementary school are influenced by needing to have the same hairstyle. If not they are “weird”.
Kristine Hernandez

Based on what you know about psychology and biology, do you believe that men and women can be perfectly equal in our society?

Yes, men and woman are equal in society; but there are some jobs such as construction workers and house maids that are designed for the individual roles. Yes men can be housemaids and yes woman can be contruction workers but as far as being hired men are typically hired faster for a construction company than women. Sexism in jobs is common.
Kristine Hernandez

questions from n

How does culture play a role in how people behave?
Different cultures have different beliefs, and therefore, one culture will behave differently than another. How people react towards close personal space, body contact or a bad grade in school, ass depends on their culture.
How do the studies of twins help us to understand the genetics behind psychology?
“If genes influence traits such as emotional instability, might they also influence the social effect of such traits?”
Twins that are identical come from the same egg and therefore have the same genes. The twin could be the “contro

l” in an experiment. The different between their environments and how they grow up can be the difference between where nurture plays and role and where nature plays a role in life.
Explain how evolution plays a role in psychology
“Does natural selection explain our human tendencies?”
“Evolutionary psychologist – behavioral tendencies and a capacity for thinking and learning that prepared out Stone Age ancestors to survive, reproduce, and send their genes into the future.” The theory suggests that evolution could explain why someone may think or act a certain way because of ancestors human descended from.
How does technology play a role in helping us to understand the brain and its functions better?
Machines that are used to read or scan the brain can show brain patterns in certain situations. How the brain reacts and what part of the brain is used can be shown to link things and ideas together.



(nedjine)

Culture (121-125)
-the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes and traditions shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next
Culture is transmitted across generations partly by what Harris calls “parents’-group-to-children’s-group-effect”
Culture Terms:
Norm: an understood rule for accepted and expected behavior. Norms prescribe “proper” behavior
Personal space: the buffer zone we like to maintain around our bodies
Memes: self=replicating ideas, fashions, innovations passed from person to person

Cultures vary in their pace of life
Children of communal cultures grow up with a stronger sense of “family self”
Within a larger culture, ethnic subgroups may differ in their behavior and yet be influenced by the dame underlying processes

(nedjine)

influence

Parental Influence and Interference  (117-118)

                -typically: parents are praised for a child’s success and shamed for a child’s failure

“The major source of human misery” is the “neglect, wounded child” in each of us. (Bradshaw)

-Shared environment influenced typically account for less than 10% of children’s personality differences “Two Children in the same family [are on average] as different from one another as are pairs of children selected randomly from the population.” Robert Plomin and Denis Daniels

 

Peer Influence (120-121)

-Peer power: as we develop we must play/ work/ mate/ partner with peers. Children and the youth are very sensitive and responsive to peer influence

-“When in Rome, they become Romans.” (Harris)

-part of similarity to peers may result from “selection effect”

Parental nurture is like nutrition***

(Nedjine )

Nature Vs. Nurture and the genes of humans Kristine Hernandez

Nature vs. Nurture
Nature - being born with certain traits
Nurture - developing character traits through experience

Genes/ DNA- are biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosome; a segment of DNA capable of synthesising a protein

Evolutionary psychology explains traits such as memory perception of language. It is the study of evolution of behavior and mind using principles of natural selection. Natural selection means that even though there are a range of traits will most likely be passed on to the generations to come.
Sexuality/Gender.
Gender bias is a variable that scientists have to control within the experiment. Gender bias exists today in the workplace and every aspect of society.
Behavior genetics is the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior.

def.

The New Frontier: Molecular Genetics (115-116)

                -the subfield of biology that studies the molecular structure and function of genes *a quest to identify the specific genes that influence behavior

“The most powerful potential for DNA, is to predict risk so that steps can be taken to prevent problems before they happen.” Robert Plomin and John Crabbe (2000)

                -Science that will genetically alter traits/sex of a(n) egg/sperm: will doing so be successful? Will it confuse a child in the future? Might deprive the world of those who are “different”?

(nedjine)

Heritability (112-113)
Proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes. The heritability of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studies
              -extent to which variation among individuals can be attribute to their differing genes

Gene-Environment Interaction (114)
     -people are a product of a cascade of interactions (dependence of the effect of one factor on another factor) between their genetic predisposition and their surrounding environments
     -our genes affect how people react to and influence us

*nurture via nature

(Nedjine)

METHODS FOR RESEARCHING THE BRAIN

There are numerous methods in place to research the brain. One of the most common ways to conduct research is to conduct Clinical Studies. In CS, research can alter the brain of the subject (usually animals like rats and mice) and observe what each area affected changes. This manipulation of the brain can help pinpoint what each area does. Another method to research the brain is to record its eletrical activity. This is done with an electroencephalogram or EEG. This device graphs brain waves are researchers can analyze the waves according to different stimuli. Other types of scans are CT and PET scans. Both create images of the brain and its activity levels. PET scans show activity by analyzing where the brain consumes glucose. The last type of scans, and MRI,  scans the head with a magnetic field to affect the brain's atoms which upon returning to normal state release signals, which are then analyzed by a computer. MRI scans can help to see areas where there is soft tissue and an abundance of fluid. 

(Charline)

CULTURAL VARIATIONS OVER TIME

Cultures have often changed quickly over time. The certain parts of a culture that can change may include improved technology, economic independence for women, human rights, divorce rates and crime rates. These changes are not influenced by genetics but rather the spreading ideas, inventions, habits and fashions. The term memes is used to describe such things which spread between individuals.

THE NATURE AND NURTURE OF GENDER

Nature -

Males and females differ biologically due to the sex chromosomes and concentrations of sex hormones present in them. The chromosomes obtained by people determines their genders and the hormones in their bodies affect their behavioral and physical characteristics. An example is testosterone which, when available in large amounts, may cause females to act more aggressively and display masculine traits.

Nurture -

Depending on where someone is raised, an example being an agricultural society, he or she may fit into a gender role. These are the traditional expectations of how both men and women should behave in society. Varying between different cultures, women often find their rights restricted more than men do. However, gender roles enhance a person’s gender identity and they may socially put people at ease. In our society, men normally perform things such as initiating dates and working while women care for the children and labor within the household. Children often become gender-typed which is when boys strongly display masculine traits and girls act feminine. The social learning theory states that children learn their associated behaviors through observance.

THE IMPORTANCE OF STUDYING TWINS

– By observing twins, variables such as the home and genes can easily be controlled. Identical twins can easily be compared to fraternal twins when studying occurrences such as genetic diseases and behaviors. Twins who are identical are far more likely to develop genetic diseases than those that are fraternal. Separated identical twins are also found to exhibit huge similarities when it comes to behaviors. The study which involves twins can help display the influence both genes and society has on children.

Culture plays a huge role in how human beings behave but it also plays a role in how we perceive others. How does the culture we were brought up in influence the way that we perceive others around the world?

The culture that we were raised in leads us to believe that our way of life is normal. Behaviors taught to us as correct creates the view that others are strange or wrong. Merely due to differences, such as clothing or foods, Americans may look down upon others and sometimes even revere them with fascination.

definitions

Adoption studies (pg 111-112): adoptive studies show the difference between two groups.

1)      genetics relatives (biological parents) vs. 2)environmental relatives (adoptive parents)

Personalities – biological vs. environmental = equal difference of personalities

However, traits are more similar to biological parents than adoptive parents

Twins’ personalities are just as different reared together than apart

*Nature vs. Nurture 

Temperament Studies (112)

person's characteristic emotional

reactivity & intensity (for infants this includes inborn emotional excitability)

(Nedjine)

Consider the term “Social Darwinism” used often during the imperial age of American history. Do you believe that the term has credibility when it comes to Psychology?

Today Social Darwinism is not able to be correctly applied to modern Psychology. Since people differ in strengths, modern society allows each unique person to fill their own niche. From those in business to artists and musicians, every person is successful when they contribute to society. Simply excelling above another in politics or business does not make one superior.

Do you believe that natural selection is a plausible theory when it comes to how humans have developed over time?

The suggestion of natural selection’s impact on how humans behave seems likely. Fears and emotions we currently have were probably existent in our past ancestors. From the feelings we have socially to phobias, such as fear of heights, each emotion would have helped previous generations survive. The intelligence people have developed also aided in human kind’s ability to live throughout the planet. The information we know today far exceeds that of our ancient ancestors who’s knowledge set them apart from other animals.

Placticity and the Brain

Plasticity is the brain's ability to reorganize neural pathways based on experiences that occur.
The divided brain has two sides. The left hemisphere is the "dominant side" easiest to study also.
The right hemisphere is the "subordinate side". Speech is processed here.

Kristine Hernandez

NEUROTRANSMITTERS AND NEURAL COMMUNICATION

Neural communication is the basis of human senses. Each nerve is made of neurons, microscopic units which look somewhat like sideways trees composed mainly of dendrites, axons, and axon terminals. Neurotransmitters are like chemical messengers that create signals between neurons to achieve some kind of reaction. The signals are perceived through an event called a synapse when the axon terminal of one cell touches another cell's dendrite end, sending electricity-like signals along the chain of neurons. These signals can increase or decrease a cell's functions according to the type of reaction felt. 

Unfortunately, neurons and neurotransmitters are very affected by drug use or disease. Drugs can interfere with comunication between neurons, can change the synapses, can bond to other neurotranmitters, altering the signals and changing the perception of feelings and senses of the human body. Some of this damage can even be permanent. 


(Charline)

How do gender roles play a role in how we study human beings and how they think?

Gender roles are an important factor as to how humans are studied. For many years, women were deemed biologically and intellectually inferior to their male counterparts. This led to women not being able to attend universities and hold the same job positions as men. Now gender roles are less strictly defined but they still do exist. Women are perceived as caretakers and nurturers and are said to be more sensitive. When younger girls observe their mothers displaying such characters, they themselves begin to exhibit them. Men are supposed to be the tough and defending heads of the family. It is deemed "not manly" for a man to display his feelings and this further enhances the idea of gender roles. Because such traits are exhibited, men and women are treated differently in experiments and are considered to be two different subjects. Some experiments even separate men and women because they are expected to react differently.

(Charline)

How do the brain and body work together to explain how humans think, feel and act?

The brain and the body can be pictured as a network of power lines. The brain would be the power plant from which the electricity is produced and the nervous systems would make up the power lines. When something "activates" a nerve, an electrical current runs through the nervous system up to the brain, which analyzes the reaction, then another signal is sent back down to the location of the reaction with a response on what the cells in that area should do. These responses cause humans to act in different ways, for if the touch is causing pain, a defensive reaction will ensue, if the touch is pleasing, then a positive reaction will come out of it. The thought process that comes from analyzing these reactions is proportional and is driven by the small electrical impulses sent through the nerves to the brain and back. 

(Charline)

What is the difference between cognitive psychology and neuroscience?

The difference between cognitive psychology and neuroscience is quite simple. Cognitive psychology focuses on how the brain learns, retains, and retrieves information while neuroscience is the biological aspect of how the brain and nervous systems work in the human body. It could be said that cognitive psychology is beneath the umbrella of neuroscience, since it borrows on ideas and findings from neuroscience.

(Charline)

How does Neuroscience help or hinder the credibility of psychology as a science?

Neuroscience helps the credibility of psychology as a science in numerous ways. To begin, neuroscience is more related to biology than to psychology, and biology has been recognized as a hard science. Because there is concrete evidence in the form of nerves, parts of the brain, and reflex reactions, it is hard to imply that neuroscience is based on ideas instead of factual information. Various experiments have been performed to find out which parts of the brain affect different aspects of human abilities such as speech, hearing, and even memory. The fact that some psychological ideas can now be backed up by scientific findings further proves that psychology is indeed a credible science.

(Charline)

THE PARTS OF THE BRAIN

The brain is the most important organ in the human body. It controls the nervous systems, all of the bodily functions, and almost every single process in the entire human body.

Here are diagrams of the major areas of the brain and their functions. The area of the Frontal Lobe labeled as speech is also known as Broca's area.


(Charline)

THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

The Endocrine System (ES) is the part of the nervous systems which controls the secretion of hormones through a set of glands spread out within the human body. This diagram illustrates the the location of the different glands.

The Pineal gland secretes Melatonin which induces sleep and lowers body temperature. Beneath this gland is the Pituitary gland which produces a variety of hormones and is known to control puberty and the production of growth hormones.

Next in the throat region are the Parathyroid glands. These glands are responsible for monitoring the amount of calcium in bones and in the blood. Beneath them is the Thyroid gland which controls metabolism and bone growth. 

In the abdomen is the Pancreas which controls the production of insulin and regulates the levels of sugar in the blood. The Adrenal glands are responsible for the breakdown of fat, the synthesizing of proteins, regulates kidney processes, and controls the Androgen hormone which controls masculinity. These glands also control oxygen and blood flow the the brain and regulate pain.

Finally the Ovaries and Testes regulate growth, the reproductive cycle, secondary growth characteristics (breasts, body hair, etc.) and control many of the body's key processes. 


(Charline)

THE LIMBIC SYSTEM

The Limbic System is composed of the Frontal Lobe, the Thalamus, Hippocampus and Hypothalamus regions, the Amygdala, and of the Olfactory Bulbs. It is a network of neural structures located at the base of the brainstem and is responsible for perception of odors, emotions, memory and drives such as needs for food or for sex. 


The LS is also affected by drug use and is stimulated by the high produced from those drugs. 


(Charline)

THE PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) is the attachment to the CNS which connects sensory organs and to the rest of the body. It's nerves extend outward from the spinal cord, much like branches from a tree's trunk and create a network of neurons which enable humans to feel, analyze the feeling, and respond to it, within the span of a second. Here is a diagram of both the CNS and the attached PNS.

If the CNS was the main power line, the PNS is made of all the smaller power lines extending from the main line.This system is divided into two categories, the Sensory-Somatic System and the Autonomic System.


The Sensory-Somatic System is composed of 12 different cranial nerves which extend from the cranium, or skull, and of 31 spinal nerves which extend from the spine. It controls the body's voluntary responses such as response to touch, hearing, and sight.


The Autonomic System controls the involuntary actions such as breathing, heart contractions, digestion, and exocrine and endocrine gland productions. It is also responsible for "fight or flight" responses  and even the dilation of pupils according to different amounts of light. Both the CNS and the PNS work together to allow the human body to function smoothly and efficiently.

(Charline)

THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

The Central Nervous System in a human being (henceforth referred to as CNS) is a complex system of neurons which enables the human body to feel and respond to outside contact. It is made up of the spinal cord and of course, the brain. Here is a diagram of the CNS:

The CNS is the main line between the brain and the Peripheral Nervous System (discussed in an another post). It can be thought of as the main power line relaying electricity from the power plant to all of the other lines which extend from the main line.


If impacted, the CNS affects almost all of the other parts of the human nervous system and can cause paralysis and other dysfunctions. 


(Charline)