more phase 2 stuff

Encoding: this lets a particular item of topic to be converted into something else that can be easier stored within our brains so we can recall later from it for short term or long term problems
Ebbinghaus’retention curve: can also be called the forgetting curve that shows the decline of our memory retention in time.
Spacing Effect: that humans and animals more easily remember or learn things (as a list) when they are studied a few times over a long period of time rather than studied repeatedly in a short period of time
What we encode: we encode memories (these comes in words, sounds, images or anything else we encounter that is possible)
Kinds of encoding: visual encoding: encoding images and visuals ; acoustic encoding: processing and encoding of things that are sound or works and those types ; semantic encoding: encoding of sensory input
Levels of processing: the different levels of encoding and that shows how well the memory or information is remembered
Imagery and memory: visual memory is when we see things pertaining to visual experiences. We can see from our memory the mental image of the original things, places or people.
Mnemonics: devices used to help people remember. They are a variety of different things. Common mnemonics are songs or short poems that stick in our mind.
Organizing for Encoding: writing things down, looking at them visually, saying things out loud can organize memories
Memory Trace:dictionary: a postulated biochemical change (presumably in neutral tissue) that represents a memory

(nedjine)

Terms and Questions of phase 2

Generalization: asscociating one thing with another
-the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses
-can be adaptive
-(Pavlov’s Dogs) – (abuse vs. non-abuse)
-stimuli that are similar to naturally disgusting or appealing objects will *by associating* evoke some disgust/linking.

Discrimination: in classical conditioned, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that do not signal an unconditional stimulus
-survival value; slightly different stimuli are at times followed by vastly different consequences

Biological Predisposition
-Kimble: “Just about any activity of which the organism is capable can be conditioned and… these responses can be conditioned to any stimulus that the organism can perceive.”
*humans seem biologically prepared to learn some things rather than others; nature prepares members of each species to learn their survival traits: “adaptation”

Taste Aversion
“If you become violently ill after eating ----, you probably would have a hard time eating them again. Their smell and taste would have become a C.S. for nausea.” This learning occurs readily because our biology prepared us to learn taste aversion to toxic foods.
-relating a cause and effect in our brains. Negativity = aversion

Watson and Rayner… after Pavlov
Pavlov provided basis for Watson’s “idea that human emotions and behavior, are mainly a bundle of conditioned responses. Watson and Rayner once showed how specific fears might be conditioned.
-“Litte Albert” (11-month infant)
Pavlov – showed how many others responses to many other stimuli can be classically conditioned in man, other organisms and also show how a process such as learning can be studies objectively

Respondent Behavior: behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus

Operant Behavior: behavior that “operates” on the environment producing consequences

Law of Effect: Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences became less likely

Skinner Box (operant chamber): a chamber containing a bar of a key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforce, with attached devices to record the animal’s rate of bar pressing or key pecking. Used in operant conditioned research

Shaping:
An operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior towards closer and closer approximations of a desired goals

Successive Approximations:
You reward responses that are ever-closer to the final desired behavior and you ignore all other responses

Explain classical conditioning using a scenario that you have created.

As children, my brothers and I were punished by the belt. Most kids get beat by the belt. So we knew that if we were going to get in trouble, we would hear the belt jingling. So now older, when we still hear the jingle of a belt, we stay on guard. In our mind, we remember getting a beating with the sound of the belt.

Explain operant conditioning using a scenario that you have created.

Being a young teenager, I don’t like cleaning or fixing things up. But every time I hear my parents complain about cleaning the house, it makes me want to do it more. Although it’s annoying, each time they continue to nag me about what they need me to do, it reinforces in my mind that I have to clean. So when they not home, I have the tendency to clean and fix things up now.

Do you think either plays a role in how you respond to teachers and your academic role here in Wilson?

In Wilson, the students are rewarded when they do well. Whether it be special privileges, or recognition or whatever. So now, students in Wilson do well in their classes because they know that they’ll be rewarded for the good grades and hard work one day. The students would not be working that hard if they didn’t see any advantage of doing so.

Belief bias: the tendency for one’s preexisting beliefs to distort logical research; sometimes by making invalid conclusions seems valid or valid conclusions seem invalid.

Belief perseverance: clinging to one’s initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has

Artificial intelligence: the science of designing and programming computer system to do intelligent rings and to stimulate human thought process such as intuitive reasoning learning and understanding language

Computer neural networks: computer circuits that mimic the brain’s interconnected neural cells, performing tasks such as learning and recognize visual patterns and smells

Language: our spoken, written or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning

Phoneme: in a spoken language, the smallest distinctive sound unit

Morpheme: in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or part of a word


(Nedjine)

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Important Terms cont.

Functional Fixedness is not being able to see the use of an object beyond its traditional function. For example a 7 year old only able to see a hammer for hammering nails.

Representativeness heuristic is judging the likelihood of things in term of how well they seem to represent, or match , particular prototypes.

availability heuristic is estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory. For example if instances come to mind we believe they are common.

Overconfidence is exactly as it sounds, being more confident than correct.

Framing is the way an issue is posed, or presented. This affects the response.
Kristine Hernandez

SOLVING PROBLEMS

All of the objects and ideas we use each day are automatically categorized in our brains into concepts. These concepts put characteristics of different object, emotions, and ideas into categories which include other objects with similar traits. Much like the classification of species and phyla in the biological sciences. Based on these preexisting concepts, our brains form what is called a prototype, or an image of what we think something should look like. This sometimes causes us to react more slowly when faced with something that isn't necessarily our idea of a concept, but still is part of one. An example of this would be when asked to name a dog many people would jump to familiar names such as Labrador or Dalmatian, but not as many people would say Rhodesian Ridgeback (a South African dog) because it is not part of the prototypical image of a dog that they have.

To figure out different problems, humans react in two ways: trial and error or through algorithms. Trial and error is as simple as the name implies, but it does not guarantee results. Algorithm is a logical way to proceed and analyze all of the possible outcomes. This however is time consuming and can lead to a lot of data. A quicker way uses the brain's concepts to make things and ideas fit together and then assemble them logically, this is called heuristics. While playing hang man you could go through and say all of the letters of the alphabet, but then you would most likely lose before figuring out the word. Instead you first name vowels and then associate consonants based on common pairs and length of the word. This is an example of your brain using heuristics to solve a problem.

Sometimes things seem to just come to us and become clearer. This is called insight. When all of the puzzle flashes before our eyes and we feel as if we now can solve the whole problem, it defies the ideas of logic. This brings confidence and feelings of happiness, such as are found after understanding a joke or funny story.

Unfortunately, humans like to be right. We sometimes look for information that will make out opinions and ideas seem right, while looking over any evidence that disproves them. We convince ourselves that we cannot be wrong. This is called Confirmation Bias.

(Charline)

MEMORY

Memory is what shows that something that was learned can last over time. It is the ability to store information and knowledge in the brain and later be able to retrieve it. The memory works somewhat like a computer, encoding data into our brain through the hippocampus and then being stored in either short term or long term memory. Then once the data is needed again it is found in the "storage" area and brought forward for use. The hipposcampus processes information and sorts it into either long or short term memory information.

Sometimes memory deteriorates after a person's hippocampus becomes damaged during a stroke, heart attack, or any other form of injury. Then people can forget certain events while still remembering others. Sometimes people can remember past events but non from recent times. Sometimes is it the opposite. Some people have extreme recall and can recite long chains of numbers in perfect order or even remember events with every minute details decades after they have happened. A type of extreme recall is called Flashbulb Memory. When an emotionally stimulating event happens, a person will most likely remember all of the details. The birth of a child, a wedding day, a natural disaster, a death, etc, all of these events can be emotionally stirring and can implant themselves onto the brain's long term memory.

Memory is divided into different categories. First comes Sensory Memory. This is the first recording of some kind of touch or sensory information. A sight, smell, sound, or taste. This then gets transferred to either long term memory or short term memory, depending on what is relates to.

Long term memory is where data that has permanent use or important content is stored. This is a mostly permanent storage of information and can occupy as many memories as is needed.

Short term memory is a more day to day memory, sometimes lasting no more than five seconds. Here information which does not enduring importance is stored, such as remembering what you ate for breakfast or what you wore the day before.

(Charline)

Important Terms

Fixation is the inability to see a problem from a new perspective

Mental set is a tendency to approach a problem in a particular way, either from successful experiences or not helpful experiences.

Kristine Hernandez