Memory

Iconic memory is when our eyes register an exact representation of a scene and we can recall any part of it in amazing detail but only for a few tenths of a second.

Echoic memory is when a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli;if attention is elsewhere,sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds.

Long-Term potentiation is an increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. It is one of the major cellular mechanisms that underlies learning and memory.

Amnesia is simply just the loss of memory.

Implicit memory does not involve a conscious strategy for retrieving information unlike explicit memory that does require some conscious control. They are performed poorly by people who are brain-damaged or drunk. Singing a part of a familiar song is an example of implicit memory where as recalling last year is an example of explicit memory.

Hippocampus is a neural center that is located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage.

Recall is a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier.

Serial position effect is our tendency to remember the first and last items in a list that we are given. The middle part is forgotten easily.

Recognition is when the person only needs to remember the items previously learned. An example of this is on a multiple choice test.

Relearning is a memory measure that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time.
Kristine

Example of how operant conditioning is used in schools

Operant Conditioning plays a role in how we respond to teachers and our individual academis roles in school. For example, there is a rule here that states is a student passes the course with an A average they are exempt from the final. As a result the student becomes used to trying to receive an A average every year.
Kristine Hernandez

Observable Learning Example

My example of observable learning that happened in my my lifetime is happening now. My brother has been watching my dad through the years playing drums. Just this past weekend my brother has decided to mimic my father's talents and is determined to follow my father's example.
Kristine Hernandez

Reinforcement Schedules

Continuous Reinforcement is when the desired response is reinforced every time it occurs, therefore learning occurs rapidly. Praising the child directly at the moment results in a probability of the action repeating again.

Partial (intermittent) reinforcement is when responses are sometimes reinforced, sometimes though they are not.

Fixed-ratio schedules are meant to reinforce behavior after a set number of responses

Variable- ratio schedules provide reinforcers after an unpredictable number of responses.

Fixed-interval schedules reinforce the first response after a fixed time period.

Variable-interval schedules reinforce the first response after varying time intervals.
Kristine Hernandez

Mere Exposure Effect

The mere exposure effect is a phenomenon where familiarity gains the approval of someone. Advertisers often use such a tool by repeatedly exposing the general population to their product. This occurs in both people and in nature where animals survive in communities.

Binocular and monocular cues

Binocular and monocular cues are how we convert the two different retinal images received by our eyes into a single, three dimensional image. Binocular cues are those that are depth related and dependent on two eyes. It consists of disparity, the difference between two objects, and convergence, how far the eyes look inward when observing an object. The more the observer looks inward, the closer an object is. Monocular cues are those that focus on distance and are present in the view of either eye alone. Monocular cues consist of size, interposition (the partially blocked view of one object by another), how clearly something is seen, the gradient of an object’s texture, its height, motion present, lighting, and linear perspective.

MISINFORMATION EFFECT and SOURCE AMNESIA

Exposure to subtle information can cause a misinformation effect in people’s memories. People may misremember hammers as screwdrivers, yield signs as stop signs, and events which happened during car accidents if misleading information is present.

Source amnesia occurs when a memory is falsely recalled from an incorrect source. An example is Jean Piaget’s memory of his nursemaid preventing his kidnapping which was actually a story retold around him multiple times. Since memories are reconstructed, people may be misled by the persistency of memories or how close they feel to actual life.

Repression

Repression is viewed to be the self-censor of painful information to an individual. It occurs to protect one’s self-concept and to minimize anxiety by suppressing memories we dislike or find painful. Sigmund Freud suggested that these memories, although repressed, lingers within a person and may possibly be retrieved during therapy.

Proactive v. Retroactive interference

Proactive interference happens when earlier learned information disrupts one’s ability to recall something experienced later. This usually happens with related information. Retroactive interference occurs when new information disrupts someone’s ability to recall earlier learned information. An example of this is when a teacher’s ability to name students becomes more difficult with the addition of a newer student.

Mood congruent memory

Mood congruent memory is when a bias affects how we remember something. Being depressed at the time we experience something causes us to look upon the event as unfavorable. This is due to the priming of negative associations with memories that are bad and the opposite for experiences that are viewed upon as good.

Déjà vu

Déjà vu becomes triggered often when someone is in a context similar to one experienced before. It is often described as an eerie feeling and multiple attempts to explain the event are available, from paranormal to unconscious causes.

Priming

Priming is the process in which an individual identifies an association with a memory. It is the retrieval of a memory through this identification and is often occurring without us actively thinking about it. Once a person is “primed” to associate an object with something they connect items such as missing children with the event of a kidnapping. Retrieval cues can often prime memories of an individual’s memory of an event earlier in life.

The Stages of Language in an individual's early life, telegraphic speech, and linguistic determination

Babbling Stage is usually around four months of age and is when newborns suddenly start making various sounds such as “ah-goo”.
One-word stage follows babbling stage and occurs as a child nears its first birthday. It is when they learn to use sounds to communicate meaning and usually is simple, one syllable words such as ma, da, or doggy. It initiates when an infant’s language starts to develop and change into its family’s speech.
Two-word stage starts at 18 months of age and it is when language moves along with an increase in a child’s speaking. It is when an infant gains the ability to say two word sentences.
Telegraphic speech characterizes the two-word stage. It is the early form of speech that contains mostly nouns and verbs and it starts to follow the rules of syntax and words in a sensible order. For example, children may say words such as “big doggy”.
Whorf’s theory of linguistic determination states that different languages provide a different conception on reality. A language may shape a man’s basic ideas with an example being the Hopi’s lack of past tense which theorizes that they cannot readily think about the past as a result. This theory shows that people of different cultures think differently due to a change in language. Those who are bilingual can more easily realize this since, more specifically, English speakers tend to use multiple self-focused emotional words and the Japanese contain more words for interpersonal emotions such as sympathy. Bilinguals have also reported a different sense of self.

Syntax

Syntax rules are for the order of words in sentences. The differing of languages leads to different forms of syntax which includes the use of adjectives after nouns as opposed to English’s version of occurring before them.

Semantics

Semantics are the rules we use to derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences. In the English language these things are grammar related speech norms such as adding “ed” to the end of verbs to create a past tense.

(10) The psychological and biological impact on how a behavior is influenced by observance.

I am conscious of cleanliness within my house and room. By experiencing a rather sanitary focused childhood and the urge of others to clean messes, by ways of operant conditioning I desire a clean environment. A biological predisposition may also be evident within me as genetics may have created disgust with items that seem unclean to the eye.

The textbook's positive bias on Skinner's research

The textbook’s presentment of Skinner’s research is valid since the examples presented are valid as well. In school, students given proper forms of teaching with immediate correction are benefitted. In work, employers interested in psychology can increase efficiency by researching the subject and reinforcing individuals through profit sharing or the simple positive feedback of a congratulations of display of appreciation for their performance of a job.

Classical and Operant Conditioning –Personal view of academic role and response to teachers

I believe that grades play a part in both Operant and Classical Conditioning to a certain extent. Generally speaking, feelings of failure occur with poorer grades and an individual may feel positive about their academic role if they receive better grades than others. Classical conditioning leads to students responding to teachers when a question in proposed to the class. This stimulus may result in certain students feeling an urge to respond to the asked question.

The validity of grades in this unit

Grades a student receives are related to this unit because poorer grades act as punishments and depending on the person better grades may reinforce an intelligent person. Grades indicate to a person if they are performing correctly and well. Due to this, it provides a few students with the motive to avoid the punishment of poor grades by cheating on tests.

OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING

OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING
Modeling
Modeling is the observing and then imitating of a specific behavior. In people, this may include catch-phrases, foods, ceremonies, traditions, and the current fads. Examples in animals may include gorillas that learn and generalize complex actions amongst each other.
Mirror Neurons
Mirror Neurons are located in the frontal lobe area that is adjacent to the motor cortex. They provide a neural basis for observational learning and they are active during observation and physical actions. The process of learning new words is also aided by mirror neurons through imitation.
Albert Bandura
Bandura experimented with children by having an adult display aggressive behavior towards a doll in view of the child. Later, the child was presented in a situation where access to the doll was available and reason to imitate the aggressive behavior was provided. This resulted in the child performing what the adult had done and it shows how imitation affects others and that anti-social models tend to have anti-social effects. Examples of this today are repeated gun threats in schools and the abuse of married women in multiple generations of one family.
Prosocial models
Nonviolent, helpful behavior is shown to be imitated similarly as anti-social models are. Humanitarian behaviors in families are often found in the parents of a person exhibiting them.
The impact of Television
Television becomes a source of learning for children who are given access to it. Children watch TV, on average, more time than they spend in school. Changes in speech and behavior become evident once TV is introduced and the acts of violence in shows and movies have created correlations such as greater hours spent watching TV leads to more aggression and as introduction to TV increases the homicidal rates of countries double. This is proposed to be a result of the imitation of violence on broadcasts by the youth.
The good news about TV
Television does not have only negative side effects. An increased awareness in nations is displayed as media gains access to newer tools. Early forms of education from television broadcasts may also benefit younger children.
Desensitizing the Youth
Prolonged exposure to violence, while watching television or even actual life, causes individuals to become indifferent to the violent acts of rape and violence. Less sympathy for victims is also shown to occur in those who are used to such things in their daily lives.

Research after Skinner

The former associates of Skinner found that biological predispositions were more important than what had been previously assumed. An example of this is instinctive drift which is the tendency for organisms to perform behaviors similar to their natural ones.

How does biology play a role in operant conditioning?

Biology shows that a subject best learns behaviors similar to their natural ones. When learning behaviors that are unnatural, an instinctive drift occurs which leads to the subject displaying behaviors that are natural again.

How does Cognition impact Operant Conditioning?

Through cognition an individual processes influences. The expectation of a response being reinforced or punished is developed and eventually latent learning which does not require reinforcement nor does the participator expect reinforcement.

Intrinsic Motivation vs Extrinsic Motivation

Intrinsic motivation is performing a behavior for its own sake. Examples of reasons for doing so may include enjoyment, interest, and self-expression.
Extrinsic motivation is performing behaviors for external rewards or avoiding punishment. Extrinsic motivation in school is focusing mainly on grades while intrinsic motivation is when focus is mainly on interest in certain subjects.

Do you think either plays a role in how you respond to teachers and your academic role here at Wilson?

I believe that OC and CC definitely play a role in how I learn. I am a very visual person and I can easily grasp a pattern, so if something is repeated once or twice I will usually remember it. I would say that I learn best with Classical Conditioning. I am not a fan of rewards or punishment. If the will to learn does not stem from myself, then I don't think someone else should have to push me into it. I would not do so well with Operant Conditioning.

(Charline)

OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING IN MY LIFETIME

An example of OL from my lifetime could be learning to make crêpes. I've watched my mom do it numerous times and after a while was able to reproduce the same recipe and actions without any help.

(Charline)

How do punishments impact your learning here in school? Consider what you know about punishment systems from the learning chapter to guide your response.

Punishments create negative associations to certain behaviors and students begin to either unconsciously or consciously suppress those behaviors. Punishment can also eliminate a behavior altogether, forcing students to maybe act in ways which they do not like. The punishment could also motivate a student to achieve better results or show more of the desired action to prevent further punishment, therefore creating a sort of fear that it could happen again. Then the learning is done forcefully rather than naturally.

(Charline)

In your normal day here at school, explain a time when you have seen the use of positive reinforcement and one of negative reinforcement. For each one analyze the impact that it had on you or the class you were in.

An example of PR would be a teacher giving extra credit on a test because every person in the class completed the homework assignments. This is giving something to the students and generally the mood and vibe of the class is happier and less tense. An example of PR which could negatively affect students is the giving of extra homework because of poor test grades. This would frustrate and make the students less happy.

An example of NR would be to get rid of an assignment because of proficiency in a subject. This would make the students feel less stressed and more grateful for the teacher. Another example of NR would be to take away computer privileges because of misuse, this would anger the students and make them less respectful toward the teacher.

(Charline)

How can understanding classical and operant conditioning help us to understand the way we learn? Provide two examples that help illustrate your point.

Understanding how the brain creates relationships and associations is key to being able to improve how much and how efficiently a person can learn. People who can easily learn by example and patterns will most likely fall under a category of Classical Conditioning. Those who need help and guidance to learn will be more Operant Conditioning learners. Once a person knows which category they fit into they can find out what kind of stimulus be it reward or negative/positive reinforcement works best to help them retain knowledge.

(Charline)

BEHAVIORISM

Behaviorism is a view that psychology should study behavior without consideration of the mental processes. It is used objectively by some scientists today while others believe that the whole picture is needed to fully understand actions and behaviors.

(Charline)

CONDITIONING

There are two main types of conditioning, which is a form or learning. Classical Conditioning is the process of learning to associate events and actions based on prior experience. An example of CC would be expecting the someone to be at the door when the dogs start to bark toward the front of the house. CC can happen naturally or through training.

Operant Conditioning, however, is aided by reinforcements. Through OC, behaviors are are suppressed or eliminated with punishment while desirable behaviors are encouraged with reward. OC is a voluntary change on the organism's behalf. The reinforcements used can be either positive or negative. Positive reinforcement is giving something (whether it be good or bad) to the subject. Negative reinforcement is taking something away (once again be it good or bad). An example of OC would be the training of an animal. It can be rewarded with being freed from a pen or crate for good behavior (negative reinforcement) or punished with a muzzle or leash for bad behavior (positive reinforcement).

(Charline)

IVAN PAVLOV AND CONDITIONING

By definition, Conditioning is the process of learning associations (Associative Learning) and anticipating events based on what is learned. Russian scientist, Ivan Pavlov became famous for experimenting with this idea. His experiments used dogs who responded to the sound of a bell associated with food. The goals of these experiments were to gain better understanding of learning.

During the experiment, Pavlov first rang a bell then blew meat powder in the mouth of the dog. This made the dog salivate naturally. Soon though, the dogs began salivating just upon hearing the bell ring, without even receiving food.

Pavlov then found that an Unconditioned Response (the salivating) paired with an Unconditioned Stimulus (the bell), eventually led to learning with a Conditioned Response and a Conditioned Stimulus (salivating at the sound of a bell).

it was also discovered though that when learning is discontinued, the conditioned response becomes less and less present, eventually going away, which is called Extinction. But this can be counteracted by Spontaneous Recovery which is the reappearance of a certain response after a time of no conditioning, which shows that Extinction is not completely present.

(Charline)

Compare Classical and Operant Conditioning

Classical and Operant Conditioning have similarities along with differences. One thing they have in common is that they both are ways of changing one’s behavior. Both are also based on behavior and the environment.

They differ because Classical Conditioning is naturally occurring according to the stimulus, and operant conditioning is through voluntary behavior.
Kristine